1. INTRODUCTION

GOALS OF THE BOOK
The actions are the techniques and the thoughts are the principles. It helps you uncover the thoughts that guide your own actions as a teacher. It introduces you to a variety of techniques.

THOUGHT-IN-ACTION LINKS
It is very important for you to become aware of the thoughts that guide your actions in the classroom. You will be able to examine why you do what you do. Heather felt insecure about having the students make the decisions about who says what to whom when. She came to realize that when something wasn’t going as she had intended, she could change one or the other.

A COHERENT SET
There should be some theoretical or philosophical compatibility among the links. The techniques may look very different in practice though, if the thoughts behind them differ. A particular technique might look different and might lead students to very different conclusions about their learning.

DOUBTING GAME AND BELIEVING GAME
Gattegno said that a teacher should never praise a student. I heard the voice in my head echoing “Being a good teacher means giving positive feedback to students. How will they know that they are right if the teacher doesn’t tell them.” Later I found myself thinking; “On the other hand, without having the teacher to rely on, students have to assume responsibility for the work. Only the learner can do the learning.” What I’ve attempted to do is play two games. The doubting game requires logic and evidence. Believing game asks us to put on the eyeglasses of another person –to adopt his or her perspective- to see the method as the originator sees it. It requires a willingness to explore what is new.

LAYOUT OF CHAPTERS
Observing a class will give you a greater understanding of a particular method and will give you more of an opportunity to reflect on your own practice than if you were to simply read a description of it.

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Bizler de bir ÖĞRETMEN olarak sizi aramızda görmekten mutluluk duyacağız tabiki:))

teşekkür ederim hocam...:)

2- GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD

Application of methods used in Latin and Greek to teaching of modern languages. Rules of grammar, not the language itself, are all important. Verb declensions are set out tables, vocabulary lists to be learned, leading to translation from mother tongue into target language and vice-versa. Little or no attention to pronunciation.

Assumption was that language consists of written words and of words which exist in isolation, as though they were individual bricks which could be translated one by one into their foreign equivalents and then assessed according to grammatical rules into sentences in the foreign language.

Underlying justification for such a method rested upon belief that what should be taught was not the language itself but the faculty of logical thought and provided valuable mental discipline, equal to the classics.

the learner wouldacquire the skill of translating in writing from MT to FL and from FL to MT

spoken form of FL played very little part in the learning process

language was merely a deductive process: from data or a set of rules presented, learner had to create sentences in FL through transfer techniques.
DISADVANTAGES
1 Even if learning a language by Grammar-Translation method trained mind in logical thought, there is little evidence to suggest that this faculty is transferable to other walks of life beyond the language classroom.When is written translation of actual use to the learner? Only perhaps after school in industry, commerce, foreign correspondence, advertising, export orders - European marketBut how many pupils of modern languages will actually end up here?

2 This method gives pupils the wrong idea of what language is and of the relationship between languages. Language is seen as a collection or words which are isolated and independent and there must be a corresponding word in the native tongue for each foreign word he learns (CF present day candidates rendering of 'Quelle est !a matiere?''Je suis seize')



3 Deplorable to assume that language is only acquired through translation skills, and this at the expense of oral skills (imagine disaster in, comprehensive schools with mixed ability classes)

4 Low translation standard - caused by grammaticaltechniques which force learner to deduce FL sentences 'by selecting from a multiplicity of rules and exceptions and individualised words. Inevitable that language learning process should fall down.

In 5 year 'O' level courses, candidate faced over 1000 rules, together with exceptions, in preparation for examination based on translation.

After 5 years learning a language, the average '0' level candidate could make up to 160 errors in translation paper and fail this part of the exam.

5 In GB translation used to constitute the greater part of 'O' and 'A' level exam ( oral getting 20% and 12% respectively ). Was this really useful / - only served small minority of learners.

6 IQ of average grammar school child not high enough to cope with this method
(imagine response of mixed-ability group in comprehensive school!)

7 Prof Carl Dodson: "Any system which allows only the few to acquire true knowledge, very often in spite of the system, can no longer claim self-perpetuating power"

Language teachers -a dying breed? - lack of language teachers / lack of students beyond Yr 9!

8 Worst effect of this method is on pupil's motivation. Because (s)he cannot succeed - leads to frustration, boredom and indiscipline.

Even among more able pupils who may be able to achieve a higher level of success, there is feeling that this is all there is to language learning. Not a rewarding or satisfying activity.. Language learning should be fun and bring some joy and pride in achievement with it.


Below is an example of the rigours of learning via the pure Grammar Method as illustrated by Professor Carl J Dodson.

Working through the mechanics of this imaginary language and undertaking the translation exercises shows how much this approach relies on cognitive ability.

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3- DIRECT METHOD

Also known as Reform Method / Natural Method / Phonetical Method / Anti-grammatical Method
All reformers were vehemently opposed to teaching of formal grammar and aware that language learning was more than the learning of rules and the acquisition of imperfect translation skills.

Vietor ('Die Sprachunterricht muss umkehren' 1882) "This study of grammar is a useless torture. It is certainly not understood; therefore it can have no effect as far as the moulding of the intellect is concerned and no-one could seriously believe that children could learn their living German tongue from it."

Instead grammar should be acquired inductively by inducing the rules of how the language behaves from the actual language itself. "Never tell the children anything they can find out for themselves." (Jesperin 1904)


Direct Method based on belief that:
1 Knowing a language was being able to speak it! Primacy of spoken word. New method laid great stress on correct pronunciation and target language from outset. Advocated teaching of oral skills at expense of every traditional aim of language teaching.
2 Second language learning must be an imitation of first language learning, as this is the natural way humans learn any language, and so MT has no place in FL lesson. (Baby never relies on another language to learn its first language).
3 Printed word must be kept away from second language learner for as long as possible (same as first language learner, who doesn't use printed word until he has good grasp of speech).
4 The written word / writing should be delayed until after the printed word has been introduced.
5 The learning of grammar/ translating skills should be avoided because they involve the application of the MT.

6 All above items must be avoided because they hinder the acquisition of a good oral proficiency.

Disadvantages of Direct Method
1 Major fallacy of Direct Method was belief that second language should be learned in way in which first language was acquired - by total immersion technique. But obviously far less time and opportunity in schools, compared with small child learning his mother tongue.
2 Is first language learning process really applicable to second foreign language learning at later stage

First language learning is essential part of child's total growth of awareness of world around him. He starts off with blank sheet, then starts collecting/selecting organising the experience of a totally new world, perceived through his senses, by formulating a variety of pre-verbal concepts.

Subsequently part of the process of learning how to live is the acquisition of skills to verbalise his desires and aversions and to label his concepts, so as to make living more sufficient and secure.

Effectiveness of these verbalising skills depends on maturation level of the child / on type of environment on intelligence.

Language is part of an intrinsic process through which child learns to recognise/ deal with new situations.


3 Compare learning of second language

At 11 years of age, child is not interested in recognition of new living situations, child has normally learned the basic concepts and can handle situations for ordinary living purposes. So as far as 'learning to live' is concerned, no similarities between two processes of learning. (not the case for immigrant children - they need to learn English for survival purposes - therefore motivating force is totally different).
Older child has already at his disposal a first language, which is securely fixed to the universe of things; (s)he is equipped with this advantage; first language learner does not have this.
Older child is more mature and it would seem nonsensical to imitate first language learning processes totally for learning additional language. (think of contact hours needed) this is argument for using MT (anti Direct Method).
What does foreign language learner wish to know first?
to know the FL equivalent of MT sentences/ words used in hitherto familiar situations.
To learn how to handle certain known/ recurring situations through the medium of the FL. He doesn't wish to handle completely new situations in FL terms.
4 The Direct Method rejects use of the printed word - but this objection is illogical since second language learner has already mastered his reading skills.

Does printed word interfere with FL pronunciation? -In fact experiments show that the printed word is of real help to consolidate the FL and actually reinforces retention (ef 'Je ma pel') - leaves mental imprint, image of shape of word.

5 Later disciples of Direct Method took it to extremes and refused to speak a single word of English in lessons. To avoid translating new words, they searched for an association between new words and the idea it stood for: 'Voilà un livre, voici une craie'. Extreme Direct Methodists had cupboards full of realia. Explanations became cumbersome and time-consuming. (Definition type explanations UN meunier est UN homme qui travaille dans UN moulin' / 'court est le contraire de long'). Teachers would be jumping over desks flapping fins, rather than say that the English for 'saumon' is 'salmon'. Concepts like cependant'/ 'néanmoins' - obviously need immediate translation!

6 Successful teacher of the Direct Method needed competence in his language / stamina/ energy/ imagination/ ability and time to create own materials and courses - beyond capacity of all but gifted few.

"The method by its very nature presupposes a teacher of immense vitality, of robust health, one endowed with real fluency in the modern language he teaches. He must be resourceful in the way of gesture and tricks of facial expression, able to sketch rapidly on the board and in the language teaching day, he must be proof against linguistic fatigue".

7 Also Direct Methodists failed to grade and structure their materials adequately - no selection, grading or controlled presentation of vocabulary and structures. Plunged pupils into flood of living language - quite bewildering for pupils.

However, many teachers did modify the Direct Method to meet practical requirements of own schools, implemented main principles, i.e teaching through oral practice and banning all translation into target language. Obviously compromise was needed.

Direct method did pave the way for more communicative, oral based approach, and as such represented an important step forward in the history of language teaching.
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Teşekkürler arkadaşım.Varsa tüm metodları bekliyoruz.Gerçi üzümünü ye , bağını sorma demişler ama , kaynak nerden acaba.

hocam bizim bir iolp sitemiz var bi kısmını ordan yazıorm bi kısmı da arkadaşlarımın özetleri filan...bende mevcut şeyler ama kesin kaynaklarını bilmiorm....

hocam bizim bir iolp sitemiz var bi kısmını ordan yazıorm bi kısmı da arkadaşlarımın özetleri filan...bende mevcut şeyler ama kesin kaynaklarını bilmiorm....

Bende'de beya kaynak var.Scanner bozuk olmasaydı bugün gönderecektim.Tamir olunca gönderirim artık.

3- THE AUDIO LINGUAL METHOD

The Audio-Lingual Method (ALM) arose as a direct result of the need for foreign language proficiency in listening and speaking skills during and after World War II. It is closely tied to behaviorism, and thus made drilling, repetition, and habit-formation central elements of instruction. Proponents of the ALM felt that this emphasis on repetition necessitated a corollary emphasis on accuracy, claiming that continual repetition of errors would lead to the fixed acquisition of incorrect structures and non-standard pronunciation.

In the classroom, lessons were often organized by grammatical structure and presented through short dialogs. Often, students listened repeatedly to recordings of conversations and focused on accurately mimicking the pronunciation and grammatical structures in these dialogs.
Critics of the ALM asserted that this over-emphasis on repetition and accuracy ultimately did not help students achieve communicative competence in the target language. They looked for new ways to present and organize language instruction, and advocated the notional functional syllabus, and eventually CLT as the most effective way to teach second and foreign languages.


The Notional Functional Syllabus
A notional-functional syllabus is more a way of organizing a language learning curriculum than a method or an approach to teaching. In a notional-functional syllabus, instruction is organized not in terms of grammatical structure as had often been done with the ALM, but in terms of “notions” and “functions.” In this model, a “notion” is a particular context in which people communicate, and a “function” is a specific purpose for a speaker in a given context. As an example, the “notion” or context shopping requires numerous language functions including asking about prices or features of a product and bargaining. Similarly, the notion party would require numerous functions like introductions and greetings and discussing interests and hobbies. Proponents of the notional-functional syllabus claimed that it addressed the deficiencies they found in the ALM by helping students develop their ability to effectively communicate in a variety of real-life contexts.

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